Inflammatory Mediators Of Asthma Health Essay

Inflammatory Mediators Of Asthma Health Essay Once IgE binds to mast cells (or activated eosinophils), an amplification system operates since the cells not only release the spasmogens and other mediators specified but also can stimulate ÃŽ ² cells to produce more IgE. Furthermore, the production of IL-5, IL-4 IL-13 and IL-9 amplifies the Th2-mediated events. It is believed that asthma symptoms are manifested because of Th2 mediated immune response. Pulmonary allergic inflammation in mice lead to decrease in pulmonary IL-5 concentration, specific IgE, IgG1, and eosinophil and T cell recruitment in wild type mice in the absence of T cells. T cells are important in IL-4 dependent IgG1, IgE and Th2 cell mediated lung inflammation, further more there is evidence that CD4+T cells have a role in asthma process. For example, in murine model external protein induced T cells increases IL-5 production and produces airway eosinophilia. (Larche et al. 2003) Asthma is a complex chronic inflammatory airway disorder that involves the activation of the inflammatory and structural cells. These released inflammatory mediators cause typical pathophysiological changes of asthma (Peter et al., 2003). There are several lines of evidence that may implicate a mediator in asthma. Firstly, it may mimic features of clinical asthma. Secondly, the mediator may be produced in asthmatic patients. Thus, mediators or their metabolites may be detected in plasma (e.g. histamine), urine (e.g. LTE4), or more likely, the airways in biopsies, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, induced sputum or exhaled air. 1.8.3.1. Histamine Histamine was the first mediator implicated in the pathophysiological changes of asthma (Barnes et al., 1998). Histamine is one of the important mediator of allergy, inflammation and bronchoconstriction. Histamine is synthesized and released by mast cells in the airway wall and by circulating and infiltrating basophils. Antigen-induced histamine secretion is initiated by the bridging of the adjacent IgE receptors on the mast cell surface. Histamine receptors are among the thousands of members of the 7-transmembrane-spanning family of receptors that couple ligand binding to intracellular reactions through interactions with another large family of guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-binding heterotrimeric proteins. H1-receptors mediate a host of intracellular events most readily characterized by changes in free cytosolic calcium levels. Histamine show different response in mammalian tissue depends upon presence of receptor on that tissue Kulkarni, (1976). 1.8.3.2. Adenosine Adenosine can act as an autocoid cause bronchoconstriction in asthmatics and increase immunologically induced mediator release from mast cells of human lung (Cushley et al., 1984; Peachell et al., 1988). Mast cells also release adenosine in response to IgE cross-linking and other stimuli for mast cell activation. 1.8.3.3. Lipid-Derived Mediators Leukotrienes Leukotrienes are potent lipid mediators produced by arachidonic acid metabolism in cell or nuclear membrane. Several types of airway inflammatory cells, like eosinophils, macrophages, mast cells, neutrophils, and epithelial cells, can synthesize LTs in response to a variety of stimuli. Leukotrienes are important inflammatory mediators involved in the pathogenesis of asthma. All the Cys-LTs are potent constrictors of bronchial smooth muscle. On a molar basis, LTD4 is 1000 times more active than histamine and constrict bronchioles (Dahlen et al., 1980). Cys-LTs, acting on Cys-LT1 receptors produce bronchospasm, airway hyper-responsiveness, proliferation of airway smooth muscle, excess production of mucus and mucosal edema and eosinophilia in the airways, and other features in asthma (Sundeep et al., 2001; Peter, 1998). Platelet Activating Factor (PAF) PAF is ether-linked phospholipid. The synthesis of PAF occurs in inflammatory cells, including platelet, neutrophils, basophils, macrophages and eosinophils. PAF induces airway smooth muscle contraction by releasing other mediators. PAF-induced bronchoconstriction is not inhibited by H1 receptor antagonist Ketotifen. However, PAF-induced bronchoconstriction can be inhibited by LT antagonists, because of involvement of LTD4 in this response. PAF stimulate chemotaxis and adhesion of eosinophils and neutrophils in-vitro (Peter et al., 2003). Prostanoids Prostanoids include prostaglandins (PGs) and thromboxane (Tx), which are generated from arachidonic acid, usually by the action of COX. In general PGF2 and PGD2 contract and PGE relax tracheal muscle. Asthmatic individuals are particularly sensitive to PGF2ÃŽ ±, which may cause intense bronchospasm. Although both PGE1 and PGE2 can produce bronchodilatation when given to such patients by aerosol, bronchoconstriction sometime is observed. Tx analogue U 46619 is a potent constrictor in asthmatic patients, and this effect is mediated in part via acetylcholine release. Prostanoids stimulate airway mucus secretion in various animal species. It inhibits the release of mediators from mast cells, monocytes, neutrophils and eosinophil inflammatory cells (Peter et al., 2003). 1.8.3.4. Cytokines Cytokines are small protein mediators that play an integral role in the coordination and persistence of inflammation in asthma. Many inflammatory cells macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils and lymphocytes) are capable of synthesizing and releasing these proteins. Th2 lymphocytes produce a panel of cytokines, including IL-5, IL-4, IL-13 and IL-9 (Barnes et al., 1998). 1.8.3.4.1. Interleukin-4 IL-4 is critical for the synthesis of IgE by B-cells and for eosinophils recruitment. IL-4 is also involved in Th2 cell differentiation. IL-4 is a key factor in the development of allergic inflammation, and they may also play a major role in exacerbating asthmatic symptoms (Adcock and Caramori, 2003). Figure 11. Role of CD4+Th2cells and Various cytokines in asthma pathogenesis. 1.8.3.4.2. Interleukin-5 It play important role in allergic asthma. IL-5 promote the maturation of eosinophils from bone marrow processor, prolongs their survival by inhibition of apoptosis, activates mature eosinophil recruitment to tissue via synergistic effect with chemoattractants such as eotaxin and promote eosinophil adhesion of vascular endothelium.IL-5 can also promote basophils to release exaggerated amounts of histamine and leukotrienes, mediators that contribute to allergic bronchospasm and congestion in asthma (Fred et al., 2000). 1.8.3.4.3. Interleukin-9 Its major actions include maturation of eosinophils, airway inflammation, airway hyper-responsiveness and mucus over production (Adcock and Caramori, 2003). 1.8.3.4.4. Interleukin-13 IL-13 is critical for the synthesis of IgE by B-cells. Activates eosinophils, monocyte. IL-13 is a key factor in the development of allergic inflammation and they may also play a major role in exacerbating asthmatic symptoms (Barnes et al., 1998). 1.8.3.5. Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) GM-CSF is one of the colony-stimulating factor that acts to regulate the growth, proliferation and maturation of hematopoietic cells.GM-CSF can enhance the release of superoxide anions, also induce eosinophil apoptosis and activation, induces release of LTs, endothelial cell migration (Barnes et al., 1998). 1.8.3.6. Reactive Oxygen Species in Asthma Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated by various enzymatic reactions and chemical processes or they can directly be inhaled. ROS are essential in many physiological reactions and are important for the killing of invading microorganisms. However, when airway cells and tissues are exposed to oxidative stress elicited by environmental pollutants, infections, inflammatory reactions or decreased levels of anti- oxidants, enhanced levels of ROS can have a variety of deleterious effects within the airways thereby inducing several pathophysiological conditions. It has been shown that ROS can damage DNA, lipids, proteins and carbohydrates leading to impaired cellular functions and enhanced inflammatory reactions. ROS are known to play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of various airway disorders such as adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), cystic fibrosis, idiopathic fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) and asthma (Gillissen and Nowak, 1998; Repine et al., 1997).

Trace Elements in the Human Body

Trace Elements in the Human Body CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION 1.Introduction 1.1 Trace Elements in Biological System: In recent years scientists from a variety of disciplines have directed their attention in an aggressive manner to a long neglected area of biochemical research i.e. the role of trace elements for the etiology of disease. Most of the elements present in the periodic table are considered to be trace elements. They are defined as various chemical elements that occur in very small amounts in the body of organisms (and are referred to as trace elements). These elements are essential for many physiological and biochemical processes. A trace element is an  element  in a sample that has an average  concentration  of less than 100  parts per million (ppm) measured in atomic count or less than 100 micrograms per gram (1). Similarly, if the body needs less than 100 milligram (mg) of an element in a day then it is labelled as a trace element. However, their concentrations may be as low as less than 100 mg of 1 kilogram (kg) of body weight or 65 kg of a body weight of an adult should not contain more than 7 gram (gm) of a trace element (2). 1.2. Role of Trace Elements in Human Body: All living organisms possess a certain amount of various trace elements in their body in order to process their body functions properly. It is incredibly important that optimum balance level of these elements in every organ, tissue and cell of the human body is maintained that serves as a primary reason to keep an organism healthy and functional. These trace elements can be in any chemical form such as inorganic salts or as biochemical agents. The trace elements are ubiquitously distributed all over the earth crest. They play several roles in human body. (However, their role varies,) such as (the element) iron, which is important for the transportation of oxygen in the body, whereas calcium is the basic component of the bones. Both plants and animals require them for their proper functioning, growth, and propagation of their life (3). It is evident that the trace elements are present in the human body in very minute quantity, and if the processes of supply and demand are interrupted due to any reason for example, the intake of these elements is not sustained up to an adequate amount, or the metabolic disorder fails to absorb these elements up to the required limit for a chemical reaction (and) the body becomes deficient of these trace elements. In case of deficiency, the body uses its reserves, but these reserves have to be replenished. The trace elements are the components of various enzymes, hormones and are a part of complicated physiological and biological mechanisms, through which a body generates other biochemicals, and proteins which help a range of systems to come out of this demanding state of affairs unscathed. This ability of a body to keep the level of its nutrients and chemical agents within optimum range despite its supply is called homeostasis. This critical process provides the body sufficient supp ort in order to sustain that pressure, which builds up due to the deficiency of trace elements. However, a lot of damage occurs within the body during this turmoil. The frequency of these types of episodes leads the body towards the development of many diseases and makes it vulnerable for the formation of various disorders. Lifestyle, environmental exposure, and diet can directly influence the concentration of trace elements in the body. There are numerous and essential metabolic activities which can not be instigated without the presence of these trace elements. Such functions may include protein metabolism, red blood cell production, development of healthy bones and teeth. It may also include growth that depends on thyroid hormones, and proper functioning of nerves and muscle (functions). Furthermore, fertility, maintenance of the integrity of cell membranes, hair coat growth, and electrical stabilization of the cell (electrically) involves directly or indirectly certain trace elements for their proper functioning. Additionally, trace elements serve as a component of B-12, which is critical for proper heart functions, regulation of heart beat, and pigmentation. The trace elements are also required for some other functions that carried out inside the body of organism such as reproduction, maintenance o f fluid balance, (aid in) intercellular communication (which is) needed for structure of most proteins and crucial for proper energy processing in the body,( reproduction, act as catalyst,) etc. Another example of such deficiencies or excessiveness of the amount of trace elements can be seen in iodine intake, where such a deficiency (or excess (ive)) can cause goiter (an enlarged thyroid gland). This trace element is efficiently concentrated by thyroid glands in fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals for the distinctive purpose of producing thyroid hormones (4). It is stated that selenium can be stored in the cells of body and then become part of the victuals series. It starts when carnivorous grazed in the fields where soil is reach with selenium and consequently the growing crops have received a great amount of selenium and eventually high selenium levels become the part of the body of the animals. Initially, selenium was considered to be a toxic element, however with the progression of scientific research and refined consensus has led to the strong belief that selenium is not toxic, and it is essential to several functions in the human body. Such as selenium acts as an antioxidant and sometimes it is present an integral constituent of enzyme glutathione peroxidase (5-6). Regular cellular metabolism is responsible for most of the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in normal cells. Therefore, ROS are neutralized, engaged, or destroyed by the action of antioxidants. Similarly, the malignant cells also contribute in production of ROS and demonstrate the low levels of antioxidant enzyme in the blood of most cancer patients (7). Beyond, the optimum limit of chromium in the blood of an organism can be linked with onset of diabetes and cardiovascular disease as well (8). Similarly, selenium influences the development of copious degenerative diseases, and its deficiencies among human beings as well as animals are being recognized worldwide as it has some association with number of pathologies (9). 1.3 The Concept of Essentiality: Those elements that are indispensable, necessary, and incredibly important for the metabolisms of living organisms are called essential elements. It has been widely accepted and established fact that without the presence of these essential trace elements no biochemical metabolism can be initiated properly, and (on the other hand) the outcome of these chemical reactions does not meet the requirements. Consequently, the concept of ‘essentiality’ is a leading cause for scientists today to focus their efforts in this field. Furthermore, explore the circumstances through collected data to discern actual facts and reasons for the significance of trace elements required in several metabolic activities in animals. However, special attention must be directed towards how their low or high blood levels, can initiate the development of disease, and the optimum blood levels of these trace elements necessary for the metabolic processes to proceed in a proper manner. This is important because some trace metals which are necessary for growth of an organism may be harmful if their specific concentration is even slightly raised. The essential trace elements act as catalyst and the body of an organism can not produce them itself. The only source of these elements in the body is our diet. However, the presence of most of these elements is higher animals is just an expression of geochemical origin or the indicator of environmental contaminations. All cells receive their nourishment from extracellular fluid. The activities of all these trace elements biologically furbish optimal implementation by commencing a series of metabolic reactions in each cell. A lack of any step in the series can lead from mild to severe problems to the health of an organizm. The following elements such as zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), selenium (Se) chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), iodine (I), manganese (Mn), and molybdenum (Mo) are considered to be as essential elements for human body. Although they play incredible roles such as being active sites of enzymes, or control the bioactivity of the metabolism though these elements are present in very small amount of the total body weight. The core consequences of low levels of trace elements are the reduced activities of the concerned enzymes. An element is recognized as essential when it has a well defined function as a stabilizer, structural, hormonal or an enzymatic cofactor, when it is always present in tissues and organs in well precise concentration range. When it induces reproducible physiological effects, and when it is possible to prevent and treat consequences due to its deficiency through its supplementation. The effects of the essential elements cannot be completely eradicated by any other element. Nevertheless, another concept of essentiality defines an element as essential when a deficient intake produces an impairment of function. The elimination of an essential trace element produces similar physiological or structural abnormalities apart from type of variety. The restoration of these essential trace elements invalidates or precludes respective abnormalities. Consequently, these abnormalities are accompanied by specific biochemical changes that can be prevented or remedied when the deficiency is prevented and remedied and restore the physiological level of that element. The symptoms of deficiency (is) disappear(s) and body functions becomes normal (10-11). Therefore, the physiological levels are restored and the symptoms which indicate such deficiencies are also vanished and the body functions return to their normal state. Trace elements are essential components of biological structures. To deal with this necessity, biological systems have developed the ability to recognize a metal and deliver it to the target without allowing the metal to participate in toxic reactions. Proteins are primarily responsible for such recognition and transport, and prevent most of the associations of trace elements with other molecules that leads to undesirable chemical modià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ cations of these molecules (12). 1.4. The Transition Metal: Chromium: Chromium is the basic element used in various industrial processes such as paint, construction, chrome plating, (and the) production of stainless steel as well as leather tanning, wood preservation, textile dyes and pigments. Besides the use of chromium in varieties of industries, trivalent (Cr (III)) and hexavalent (Cr (VI)) chromium compounds are thought to be the most biologically imperative (13-14). For example, the Cr (III) is an essential dietary mineral in low doses. It is required to potentiate insulin for the normal glucose metabolism (15-16). Since 1971, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has been interested to categorize carcinogens and ascertain occupational association with high rate of cancer risk. Some chemicals used in shoe, tire, and furniture manufacturing, as well as nickel refining, diesel fuel, and dry cleaning have been classified as â€Å"probable carcinogens. Arsenic, asbestos, benzene, benzidine, chromium, 2-Naphthylene, oils, and vinylc hloride show occupational exposures causally associated with cancer in humans. 1.4.1. Chromium Metabolism: The chemistry of chromium is very interesting and complicated because of having the capability of possessing various oxidation states. However, chromium (III) and (VI) are the most stable forms that exist in our environment. The chromium (III) and chromium (VI) inter-conversion is influenced by numerous factors, such as the concentrations and type of chromium species, nature of oxidizing or reducing agents. Moreover, the electrochemical behavior of the oxidation and reduction reactions, ambient temperatures and pressure, amount of light, sorbents, acid-base reactions, complexing agents, and precipitation and chemical reactions may also play a pivotal roll in support of establishing a specific chromium oxidation state in certain environmental conditions. Chromium can react directly at the site of contact or be absorbed through human tissue. A very important difference is observed that chromate ion (Cr (VI)) slips away through cellular membranes at an exceedingly faster rate than chrom ium (III) species (17). Chromium (III) combines directly to transferrin, an iron-transporting protein in the plasma after entering the body from an exogenous source. In contrast, chromium (VI) is immediately engaged by erythrocytes after absorption and is reduced to chromium (III) inside the cell. Apart from the source, chromium (III) is extensively distributed within the body and measured for most of the chromium both in plasma or tissues. It has been expounded that the reduction of chromium (VI) does not occur in the plasma. Chromium (VI) enters cells through the phosphate and sulfate anion-exchange carrier pathway. However, most chromium (III) present in the blood stream and is substantially bound to amino acids, and with other organic acids. The plasma proteins, such as globulins may also an attractive target for chromium (III) though a portion of it remains in plasma for an extended period of time as well (18). The blood provides a major carrier service for the delivery of chromium to other parts and organs of the body. The substantial concentration of chromium was discovered as a protein-complex in various parts of the human body such as bone marrow, lungs, lymph nodes, spleen, kidney, and liver, though the highest levels of chromium remains in the lungs (19-20). Excretion of chromium takes place primarily through kidneys, with the release of maximum concentration and without leaving traces of it in the organs. However, almost 10% of an absorbed dose is eliminated by biliary excretion. Nevertheless, minute quantities delivered to hair, nails, milk, and sweat. Chromium usually cleared from blood within hours whereas eradication from the organs of body is not prompt as the half life of chromium is several days. In a study chromium (VI) was administered to volunteers and it was observed that it removed more rapidly from the body than chromium (III) (21). The reduction of chromium (VI) to chromium (III) has been extensively investigated and it has been observed that the consumed hexavalent chromium is vigorously reduced to the trivalent form by the action of chemicals present in stomach such as gastric fluid (22). However the results of another study show that chromium (VI) is reduced to the chromium (III) form in the red blood cells (RBCs) as well (23). Moreover, during reduction to the trivalent form, chromium may interact with cellular macromolecules, including DNA (18) or it may be released slowly from the cell (24). After conducting a series of experiments a group of scientists purposed various routs (routes) by which conversion of chromium (VI) to chromium (III) can occurs inside the body of an organism. They discovered that as soon as chromium (VI) enters inside the cell it is immediately incorporated by cellular reductants and converts chromium (VI) to the trivalent form. The reductants may consist of ascorbic acid, glutathione, and flavoenzymes. The example of glutathione is cytochrome P-450 glutathione reductase and the example of flavoenzymes is riboflavin. However, inter-conversion of one oxidation state to another oxidation of chromium instantly occurs when reducing agent is ascorbate instead of glutathione. At some point during the process of conversion from one oxidation to another oxidation state chromium is capable of producing many other types of unstable complexes as well as free radicals such as hydroxyl group (*OH) and single atom of oxygen (1O2). Besides the production of oxidan ts, the presence of DNA abrasions were also observed during this series of experiments. For example these abrasions may consist on oxidative damage of DNA, and production of 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine etc. However, it is still mystery whether to characterize the formation of various intermediate chromium complexes as potential carcinogen with respect to chromium (VI) (25-26). 1.4.2. Chromium Deficiency: Chromium deficiency has been associated with many factors such as impaired glucose tolerance, fasting hyperglycemia, glucosuria, elevated body fat percentage, decreased lean body mass, maturity-onset diabetes, cardiovascular disease, decreased sperm count, and impaired fertility etc (27). A recent comparative study revealed that supplement chromium (III)-picolinate is an excellent source of chromium towards its own deficiency as compared to chromium (III)-niacin (19). However there is a long list of fresh food and nuts that are available in the market that are considered to be a rich source of chromium (III) such as cereals, spices, fresh vegetables, meats, and fish etc. 1.4.3. Chromium Toxicity: Generally the toxicity of an element is measured on the basis of its lethal dose, where the tolerance limit of the body is exhausted and the consequences of high levels of particular element appear in the form of signs, symptoms, and medical impairments. These elements are estimated for their toxicity or carcinogenic potential exclusively by measuring their levels present in the blood of an organism for instance, tin and lead. However, chromium is exceptional among the list of carcinogens due to its versatile nature of retaining various oxidation states such as chromium (IV), chromium (V), chromium (IV), and chromium (III) etc. Therefore, chromium oxidation states have also been taken into account for the evolution of chromium carcinogenicity. For example, consideration of a hazardous waste material is dependent on the concentration of chromium present in the form of chromium (VI) while the other forms of chromium are classified as non carcinogens, according to the United States Envi ronmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Furthermore, it has been recommended that the measurement of toxic levels of chromium is also reliant on the availability of biological form of chromium (28).

Voltage: Ohms Law And Kirchhoffs Rules :: essays research papers

Voltage: Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's Rules ABSTRACT   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's rules is fundamental for the understanding of dc circuit. This experiment proves and show how these rules can be applied to so simple dc circuits. INTRODUCTION   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the theory of Ohm's Law, voltage is simply proportional to current as illustrated in the proportionality, V=RI. As shown in this relation, V represent voltage which is the potential difference across the two ends of a electrical conductor and between which an electric current, I, will flow. The constant, R, is called the conductor's resistance. Thus by the Ohm's Law, one can determine the resistance R in a DC circuit without measuring it directly provided that the remaining variable V and I is known.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A resistor is a piece of electric conductor which obeys Ohm's Law and has been designed to have a specific value for its resistance. As an extension of the Ohm's Law, two more relationship can be drawn for electric circuits containing resistors connected in series or/and parallel. For resistors connected in series, the sum of their resistance is, RTOTAL=R1+R2+ ..... +Rn . And for resistors connected in parallel, 1/RTOTAL==1/R1+1/R2+ ..... +1/Rn . Complex dc circuit involving a combination of parallel and series resistors can be analyzed to find the current and voltage at each point of the circuit using 2 basic rules formulated by Kirchhoff. 1) The algebraic sum of current at any branch point in a circuit is zero. 2) The algebraic sum of potential difference, V, around any closed loop in a circuit is zero. These rules and equations provided by the Ohm's law and the Kirchhoff rule can be experimentally tested with the apparatus available in the lab EXPERIMENTAL METHOD   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The apparatus used in the experiment includes a Voltmeter, an Ammeter, some connecting wires and a series of resistors and light bulb with varies resistance. This experiment could be divided into 5 sections which value of voltage and current measured is noted in all sections for further calculation. In the first section, in order to evaluate the reliability of Ohm's law, a dc circuit was constructed as FIG 2 (on p.4 ) using a resistor with an expected resistance at 2400W*120W. In the second section, we were instructed to determine the internal resistance of the voltmeter. Two dc circuit were constructed as FIG 1. and FIG 2. using a resistor with an expected resistance at 820000W*41000W. In the third section, we were asked to judge if the filament of a light bulb obey Ohm's law, this was done by constructing a dc circuit as FIG 1. with a light bulb instead of a resistor.

Capital Punishment: Costs Of The Death Penalty Essay -- essays researc

Capital Punishment: Costs of The Death Penalty Let us suppose that killing as a form of punishment is a moral and universally accepted practice. Would it then be acceptable to issue this irreparable sanction to a select few while allowing others, equally accountable, to avoid it? It is acceptable to our criminal justice system for it seems to be standard operating procedure. Many embrace the death penalty based on the "eye for an eye" concept. There is certainly some merit to this argument and it seems quite fair and logical. Unfortunately our use of the death penalty is neither fair nor logical. Our criminal justice system's "lip service" to the age-old concept is an insulting disguise for such an obscurity of fairness and logic. The death penalty is frivolous and discriminatory in its procedure because of the unreasonable prices we pay to execute certain groups at much higher rates than others. We pay different prices for using a death penalty. Sadly, today more than ever, the dollar seems to be the endlessly interchangeable standard of value. We strive to make money, save money and when we spend money we do so with a valued return in mind. Accordingly, a popular argument contends that we spend too much money incarcerating prisoners for life. We probably do but the price tag on issuing a death sentence according to a Florida study is $3.1 million compared to $1 million for a life sentence; a 3100% difference (Walker 1994, 108). Imagine your death bein...

The Identity of Thomas Pynchon :: Biography Biographies Essays

The Identity of Thomas Pynchon The identity of Thomas Pynchon is as elusive as the sticky, complex webs of meaning woven into his prose. As America's most "famous" hidden author, Pynchon produces works which simultaneously deal with issues of disappearance and meaning, of identity and nothingness in a fashion that befuddles some and delights others. He speaks to the world from his invisible pulpit, hiding behind a curtain of anonymity that safely disguises his personality from the prying eyes of critics and fans alike. Without a public author presence, readers are forced to derive the identity of the author instead from the author's actual works. When searching for the identity of Pynchon, and indeed the notion of identity itself, the novels of Thomas Pynchon offer an interesting starting point. Questions of identity and meaning are shrouded beneath a veil of conspiracy in The Crying of Lot 49, Pynchon's second novel and his shortest. Throughout the novel there are snatches of hidden agendas and mysterious plans; it is a world run by Pierce Inverarity, a character who is dead when the novel opens yet remains an active presence throughout the work. This seems to fit Pynchon's situation rather nicely as the ghostly moderator of a tired world, leading his main character Oedipa Maas on a quest for meaning while blindly groping for clues about a conspiratorial mail system known only as the Trystero. Oedipa's quest echos the quest of everyone; she wishes for an identity that makes some sense within the framework of her world. Thomas Pynchon, by erasing himself from the public sphere, is questing for identity in his own right through his writings, letting Mrs. Maas do the searching for him. Little is known about Pynchon's life, and no one who knows him seems to be willing to add to the miniscule pile of information currently available about him. His most recent published photograph dates back to 1953. Beginning at the beginning, he was born on May 8, 1937 in Glen Cove, New York. He attended Cornell University and received a degree in English in 1959. He worked at Boeing Company in Seattle as a technical writer until his first novel V. appeared in 1963 (Gray 70). From that point onward, Pynchon vanished from the public eye. Information about any part of Pynchon's life after V. The Identity of Thomas Pynchon :: Biography Biographies Essays The Identity of Thomas Pynchon The identity of Thomas Pynchon is as elusive as the sticky, complex webs of meaning woven into his prose. As America's most "famous" hidden author, Pynchon produces works which simultaneously deal with issues of disappearance and meaning, of identity and nothingness in a fashion that befuddles some and delights others. He speaks to the world from his invisible pulpit, hiding behind a curtain of anonymity that safely disguises his personality from the prying eyes of critics and fans alike. Without a public author presence, readers are forced to derive the identity of the author instead from the author's actual works. When searching for the identity of Pynchon, and indeed the notion of identity itself, the novels of Thomas Pynchon offer an interesting starting point. Questions of identity and meaning are shrouded beneath a veil of conspiracy in The Crying of Lot 49, Pynchon's second novel and his shortest. Throughout the novel there are snatches of hidden agendas and mysterious plans; it is a world run by Pierce Inverarity, a character who is dead when the novel opens yet remains an active presence throughout the work. This seems to fit Pynchon's situation rather nicely as the ghostly moderator of a tired world, leading his main character Oedipa Maas on a quest for meaning while blindly groping for clues about a conspiratorial mail system known only as the Trystero. Oedipa's quest echos the quest of everyone; she wishes for an identity that makes some sense within the framework of her world. Thomas Pynchon, by erasing himself from the public sphere, is questing for identity in his own right through his writings, letting Mrs. Maas do the searching for him. Little is known about Pynchon's life, and no one who knows him seems to be willing to add to the miniscule pile of information currently available about him. His most recent published photograph dates back to 1953. Beginning at the beginning, he was born on May 8, 1937 in Glen Cove, New York. He attended Cornell University and received a degree in English in 1959. He worked at Boeing Company in Seattle as a technical writer until his first novel V. appeared in 1963 (Gray 70). From that point onward, Pynchon vanished from the public eye. Information about any part of Pynchon's life after V.

Compare and Contrast the Spread of Islam Essay

Two of the most significant religions are Islam and Christianity, their spread has effected many places throughout the world. Throughout the years these religions have had substantial impact on the course of history. There are many things alike and different between the spread of Islam in Africa and the spread of Christianity in Europe. During the first two centuries of the existence of each religion there were fundamental differences between the expansion of Christianity and that of Islam, despite early similarities in the way they spread. Christianity existed several centuries prior to the birth of Islam, and by the time Muhammad founded Islam in the Middle East, Christianity had moved its center to Europe, where it had firmly established itself as the official religion. But Christianity originally sprouted in the Middle East after Christ’s resurrection in A.D. 30. The church began in Jerusalem and the surrounding area, and it initially preached the Gospel only to the Jews. It grew quite rapidly for a time—in fact, the book of Acts records the conversion of 3000 Jews in a single, extraordinary day. During this early period, however, Christianity did not expand far beyond Jerusalem and its vicinity. That would soon change. After the first few years of relative peace for the church, a terrible persecution broke out following the stoning of Stephen. Jewish leaders hunted down the followers of Jesus and threw them into prison. At this time many in the church scattered to the surrounding countryside of Judea and Samaria. Christianity’s worldwide expansion was beginning (Nosotro 1). When Islam was founded about 550 years later, around the beginning of the seventh century, its initial experience was strikingly similar to the early experience of the Christian church. In 610 A.D. Muhammad claimed that he received revelations from God that called him to preach a new religion called Islam. At first he began to do so secretly, but after three years he found the courage to proclaim his new faith publicly and gained a growing number of followers. However, his monotheistic message was not well received by many in his polytheistic city, where people were used to profiting from pagan pilgrims. As a result, the early Muslim converts faced persecution, just as the early Christians had. Islam’s growth was limited during this  time, and it did not spread far beyond Mecca. Eventually the harassment forced Muhammad to leave Mecca, so he fled to Medina. Here he gathered many converts who became his militant followers. As with the early Christian church, therefore, persecution caused the first significant spread of Islam (Goddard 128). The histories of Christian and Muslim expansion, however, lost much of their similarity after the points of their initial dispersions caused by persecution. Christians, for example, generally established new churches in cities, intending that the gospel would diffuse into the countryside from there. But this made the spread of Christianity during the first two centuries an essentially urban phenomenon, and it became an urban religion. In contrast, Arabia had very few cities, so Islam spread mostly through villages and rural areas. Another contrast was that the Christian church continued to face persecution throughout its first two centuries, and yet it continued to grow. On the other hand, persecution against Muslims had essentially ended by the time Muhammad died. Many such distinctions made the spread of Christianity and the spread of Islam extremely different (Hutchinson 122). Perhaps the most significant difference between the first two centuries of the expansion of Christianity and Islam was between the methods used to spread their messages. These methods stemmed from the beliefs of each religion. Their contrasting attitudes caused Christians and Muslims to go about conversion in different manners. During their first two centuries, Christians did not force their religion on others but relied on missionaries, preaching, and leading godly lives to draw people to the one true God. Muslims, on the other hand, did not rely solely on preaching to spread their faith—they turned also to the sword. While it is true that many did convert willingly to Islam, the Muslims also conquered vast areas of land in the Middle East and Northern Africa during the seventh and eighth centuries. When they attacked or occupied new territory, they gave its inhabitants three options: convert to Islam, pay a special tax, or die. Under these circumstances many chose to pay the tax, and many others chose to convert to Islam (Nosotro 1). The differing methods of expansion actually helped determine the area each religion would cover as it spread. Christians during the first two centuries traveled from city to city in the Roman Empire, taking advantage of the excellent Roman roads. As a result, the first two centuries saw the Gospel spread primarily in Roman territory, although it was also carried to some other areas, including Ethiopia and perhaps even India. By the year 200 A.D., Christian communities existed throughout the Middle East and Turkey, and there were several in Greece and Italy as well. Islam, however, spread from Saudi Arabia and conquered most of the Middle East and North Africa. Muslims even extended themselves into the Iberian Peninsula and pressed north, nearly reaching Paris before Charles Martel checked their advance by defeating them at the Battle of Tours in 732. Because Islam advanced by force, it met with hostility and resistance in Europe, where Christianity was already strong. But in other areas, such as Egypt and Syria, it was accepted readily by people who had been living under suppressive rule. As a result of its method of expansion Islam could not spread far north into Europe but remained in the territory south of Europe instead (Neander 224). Clearly, the first two centuries of Christian expansion differed greatly from Islam’s first two centuries of expansion, in spite of some early similarities. Although the spread of both religions was initially sparked by persecution, they went about spreading their messages in very different ways. As a result of Christianity’s reliance on missionaries, it spread primarily in the Roman Empire. Since Islam used force to expand its territory, it could not expand far into Europe because it met military opposition. Instead it engulfed most of the Middle East and North Africa. Even today the marks of Christianity and Islam can be seen in the areas where they first spread. After its first two centuries of expansion, Christianity eventually became the official religion of the Roman Empire, and it profoundly influenced the development of Europe and of the Americas. Islam still remains dominant in much of the Middle East and North Africa where it once created an empire (Nosotro 5) . In the beginning these two religions started on the same path of expansion.  But their expansions began to differ more and more throughout the years. The spread of Islam has greatly influenced Africa. Likewise, Christianity had a great influence on Europe. Both these religions have, and will continue to have, major effects throughout history. Work Cited Goddard, Hugh. Christians and Muslims. New York: Routledge, 1995. Hutchinson, Paul. The Spread of Christianity. Boston: Abingdon Press, 1922. Neander, Augustus. General History of the Christian Religion and Church. Boston: Crocker & Brewster, 1854. Nosotro, Rita. â€Å"The Spread of Christianity and Islam†. April 07, 2008 http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/essays/comp/cw11christislamexpand.htm.

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|[pic] |Course Syllabus | | |College of Humanities | | |COM/100 | | |Introduction to Communication |Copyright  © 2012, 2010, 2008 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved. Course Description This course is an introduction to the field of communication with emphasis on the history of communication study, concepts important to all areas of communication, the contexts in which communication occurs, and the issues that must be faced by students of communication. The course serves as an introduction to the strands of communication: interpersonal, small groups and teams, mass communication, organizational, intercultural, and rhetoric.Policies Faculty and students/learners will be held responsible for understanding and adhering to all policies contained within the following two documents: †¢ University policies: You must be logged into the student website to view this document. †¢ Instructor policies: This document is posted in the Course Materials forum. University poli cies are subject to change. Be sure to read the policies at the beginning of each class.Policies may be slightly different depending on the modality in which you attend class. If you have recently changed modalities, read the policies governing your current class modality. Course Materials Beebe, S. A. , Beebe, S. J. , & Ivy, D. K. (2013). Communication: Principles for a lifetime (5th ed. ). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. West, R. , & Turner, L. H. (2004). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application (2nd ed. ). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. West, R. , & Turner, L. H. 2010). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application (4th ed. ). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. All electronic materials are available on the student website. |Week One: Overview of Communication | | |Details |Due |Points | |Objectives |Identify historical developments in communications. | | | |Identify communication models. | | | | |Explain how communication affects self-concept. | | | |Reading |Re ad Ch. 1 of Introducing Communication Theory (2010). | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 2 of Communication: Principles of a Lifetime. | | |Reading |Read University of Phoenix Material: The Contexts and Theories of Communication document | | | | |located on the student website. | | | |Reading |Read this week’s Electronic Reserve Readings. | | | |Participation |Participate in class discussion. |Two posts on each |20 | | |of four different | | | | |days | | |Discussion Questions |Respond to weekly discussion questions. |DQ #1 on Day 3, DQ|15 | | | |#2 and #3 on Day 5| | |Learning Team |Complete the Learning Team Charter. Day 7 |10 | |Learning Team Charter |Resource: Learning Team Toolkit | | | |Individual |Complete the University of Phoenix Material: Introduction to Communication Worksheet located |Day 7 |25 | |Introduction to Communication |on the student website. | | | |Worksheet | | | | Week Two: Verbal, Nonverbal, and Interpersonal Communication | | |Details |Due |Points | |Objective s | | | | | |Distinguish between verbal and nonverbal messages. | | | |Recognize types of interpersonal communication. | | | | |Identify conflict management stages. | | | | |Identify interview techniques. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 3 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 5 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 7 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 8 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read Appendix A in Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | |Reading |Read this week’s Electronic Reserve Readings. | | | |Participation |Participate in class discussion. |Two posts on |20 | | | |each of four | | | | |different days | | |Discussion Questions |Respond to weekly discussion questions. DQ #1 on Day 3,|15 | | | |DQ #2 and #3 on| | | | |Day 5 | | |Learning Team |Complete response of 250-300 w ords to the following: Describe the positive and negative |Day 4 |10 | |Learning Team Exercises |effects that a modern form of communications has had on business and personal communications. | | | | | | | | |Post in the Main forum. | | | |Individual |Complete the University of Phoenix Material: Nonverbal, Interpersonal, and Textual |Day 7 |25 | |Nonverbal, Interpersonal, and |Communication Worksheet located on the student website. | | |Textual Communication | | | | |Worksheet | | | | |Learning Team |Write a 500- to 750-word summary about the stages of conflict management. What steps will a |Day 7 |30 | |Conflict Resolution Paper |team take to resolve conflict? What are the consequences of exhibiting behavior that could | | | | |have a negative effect on the team? | | | | | | | | |Explain how you would handle the following situations: | | | | | | | | | |A team member who does not submit his or her portion of an assignment | | | | |A team member who does not meet deadlines | | | | |A team member who wants to control the completion of all assignments | | | | |A team member who submits work that is below team standards | | | | |A team member who does not cite sources | | | | |A team member who is not open to others’ ways of doing things | | | | |A personality conflict between two team members | | | | |Team members who post derogatory messages directed at others | | | | | | | | | |Describe the different interview skills and techniques you used to collect information on | | | | |conflict resolution methods from Learning Team members. | | | | | | | | |Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines. | | | |Week Three: Small Group and Team Communications | | |Details |Due |Points | |Objectives | | | | | |Identify elements of group dynamics. | | | | |Identify group development phases. | | | |Recognize characteristics of effective teams. | | | | |Identify problem-solving steps. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 9 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Readi ng |Read Ch. 10 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read this week’s Electronic Reserve Readings. | | | |Participation |Participate in class discussion. Two posts on |20 | | | |each of four | | | | |different days | | |Discussion Questions |Respond to weekly discussion questions. |DQ #1 on Day 3,|15 | | | |DQ #2 and #3 on| | | | |Day 5 | | |Learning Team |Complete response of 250-300 words to the following: Review Ch. 0 of Communication: |Day 4 |10 | |Learning Team Exercises |Principles for a Lifetime. Discuss any concept that a team member is having a difficult time | | | | |understanding and examine the importance and applicability of this week’s concepts to each | | | | |team member and to society in general. | | | | | | | | | |Post in the Main forum. | | |Learning Team Instructions |Take the Leadership and Group Dynamics Self-Assessment by clicking the link on the student | | | |Group Dynamics |website. | | | | | | | | | |Discuss your indiv idual results in the Learning Team forum. | | | |Individual |Recall a small team or group you have been a part of. |Day 7 |55 | |Small Team and Group Paper | | | | | |Write a 700- to 1,050-word paper about your experience. | | | | | | | | |Provide a brief description of the team or group. How many members did it include? What was | | | | |its purpose? | | | | | | | | | |Describe the behaviors the team or group exhibited as it went through each stage of | | | | |development. | | | | | | | | |Describe a problem the team or group encountered. What steps were taken to address and solve | | | | |the problem? Was the team or group able to generate a successful solution? Why or why not? | | | | | | | | | |Discuss the influence that leadership—or the lack of leadership—had on the team’s or group’s | | | | |ability to solve the problem. What style of leadership did the leader exhibit?What | | | | |problem-solving steps were taken to resolve the situation? What ste ps would have produced | | | | |better results? | | | | | | | | | |Explain whether the team or group was effective. Support your position by discussing goals, | | | | |roles, ground rules, norms, and characteristics your team or group displayed.How did these | | | | |characteristics affect the team’s or group’s ability to accomplish its purpose and solve the | | | | |problem it encountered? | | | | | | | | | |Analyze how communication contributed to cohesiveness. Identify and address how diversity or | | | | |technology affected the team or group members’ ability to communicate with one another to | | | | |reach a resolution. | | | | | | | | |Explain your thoughts on how goals, roles, ground rules, and norms help determine | | | | |effectiveness. How did these characteristics affect the team’s or group’s ability to | | | | |accomplish its purpose and solve the problem? | | | | | | | | | |Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines. | | | Week Four: Mass Communication and Presentations | | |Details |Due |Points | |Objectives | | | | | |Explain how mass communication influences society. | | | | |Identify presentation techniques. | | | | |Distinguish between informative and persuasive presentations. | | |Reading |Read Ch. 11 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 12 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 13 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 14 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read this week’s Electronic Reserve Readings. | | | |Participation |Participate in class discussion. Two posts on |20 | | | |each of four | | | | |different days | | |Discussion Questions |Respond to weekly discussion questions. |DQ #1 on Day 3,|15 | | | |DQ #2 and #3 on| | | | |Day 5 | | |Learning Team |Complete the following in 250-300 words: Consider the speeches you have heard and the |Day 4 |10 | |Learning Team Exerc ises |conferences you have attended in the past.Think about the speaker’s presentation style and | | | | |discuss among team members the following: | | | | | | | | | |Name of the speaker and the event at which he or she was speaking | | | | |Nonverbal communication and body language used | | | | |Voice reflections used | | | |Eye contact used | | | | |Verbal communication used | | | | | | | | | |For the formal/written part of the assignment, Identify five or more presentation best | | | | |practices. | | | | | | | | |Post in the Main forum. | | | |Nongraded Activities and |The best way to learn public speaking—other than actually doing it—is to observe other | | | |Preparation |speakers in action and analyze what factors contributed to the strengths or weaknesses of | | | |Speech Analysis |their presentations. | | | | | | | | |Watch Randy Pausch’s speech located on the student website. | | | | | | | | | |Complete the University of Phoenix Material: Indi vidual Speech Evaluation Form. | | | |Learning Team |Create a 10- to 15-slide Microsoft ® PowerPoint ® presentation that traces the rise and fall of|Day 7 |40 | |America’s Smoke Screen |the tobacco industry’s advertising campaigns from the 1920s to the present. | | | |Presentation | | | | |Develop a presentation that outlines strategies the tobacco industry used to improve its | | | | |image and convince the public of its sincerity. | | | | | | | | | |Use an informative or persuasive approach to illustrate how the tobacco industry demonstrated| | | | |it is serious about its efforts to improve its image. | | | | | | | | |Cite at least two references from University Library for every team member. | | | | | | | | | |Format your references consistent with APA guidelines. | | | | | | | | | |Deliver your presentation and submit your presentation file or link. | | | | | | | | |For Local Campus students, these are oral presentations accompanied by Microsoft ® PowerPoint  ®| | | | |presentations. | | | | |For Online and Directed Study students, these are Microsoft ® PowerPoint ® presentations with | | | | |notes. | | | Week Five: Special Issues and Research Methods in Communication | | |Details |Due |Points | |Objectives | | | | | |Explain how diversity affects communication. | | | | |Identify communication technologies. | | | | |Recognize the role of ethics in communication. | | | |Identify research methods used in communication. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 6 of Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | |Reading |Read Ch. 3 of Introducing Communication Theory (2010). | | | |Reading |Read â€Å"Methods of Inquiry† in Ch. 4 of Introducing Communication Theory (2004). | | | |Reading |Read this week’s Electronic Reserve Readings. | | | |Participation |Participate in class discussion. Two posts on |20 | | | |each of four | | | | |different days | | |Discussion Questions |Respond to weekly discussion questions. |DQ #1 on Day 3,|15 | | | |DQ #2 and #3 on| | | | |Day 5 | | |Learning Team |Complete the following: Select two cultures other than your own and compare those cultures to|Day 4 |10 | |Learning Team Exercises |your cultural background. | | | | | | | | |Consider the following: | | | | | | | | | |What are the differences in how men and women are viewed in each culture? | | | | |List two social customs of each culture. How do they differ from your culture? | | | | |Compare cultural values and how they differ from your culture. Refer to Ch. of | | | | |Communication: Principles for a Lifetime. | | | | | | | | | |Also complete the following as a team: | | | | | | | | | |Discuss any concept that a team member is having a difficult time understanding. | | | |Examine the importance and applicability of this week’s concepts to each team member and to | | | | |society in general. | | | | | | | | | |Post in the Main forum. | | | |Individual |Read the instructions in the University of Phoenix Material: New Business Product, and select|Day 7 |60 | |New Business Analysis |one option to complete the assignment.You can choose from the following options: | | | | | | | | | |Option 1: Product Market Analysis Paper | | | | |Option 2: New Advertising Campaign | | | |Learning Team |Resource: Communication Research Methods Activity located on the student website |Day 7 |40 | |Special Issues Presentation | | | | | |Prepare an 8- to 10-slide Microsoft ® PowerPoint ® presentation on special issues in | | | | |communication.Discuss the following in your presentation as they relate to communication: | | | | | | | | | |Diversity | | | | |Ethics | | | | |Technology | | | | |Mass communication | | | | | | | | | |Include how these issues relate to each other. For instance, How do gender differences affect| | | | |communication?How does technology affect communication between different cultures? Does | | | | |diversity affect ethical decisions? How does technology affect ethical decision making? | | | | | | | | | |Identify the research approach typically used for each issue by filling out the University of| | | | |Phoenix Material: Communication Research Methods Matrix. | | | | | | | | |Include a summary of the matrix in your presentation. | | | | | | | | | |Deliver your presentation and submit your presentation file or link. | | | | | | | | | |For Local Campus students, these are oral presentations accompanied by Microsoft ® PowerPoint ®| | | | |presentations. | | | |For Online and Directed Study students, these are Microsoft ® PowerPoint ® presentations with | | | | |notes. | | | Copyright University of Phoenix ® is a registered trademark of Apollo Group, Inc. in the United States and/or other countries. Microsoft ®, Windows ®, and Windows NT ® are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries. All other company and product names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective companies. Use of these ma rks is not intended to imply endorsement, sponsorship, or affiliation. Edited in accordance with University of Phoenix ® editorial standards and practices.